Selection of Assistance Dogs
An early understanding of behavioral suitability for guiding work in domestic dogs (Canis familiaris) would be useful for organizations which train dogs as mobility aids, such as the Guide Dogs for the Blind Association. We explored the potential for a standardized test of behavior in young dogs to reflect subsequent success in guide dog training. Five hundred eighty-seven potential guide dogs were exposed to a series of eight stimuli at 6-8 weeks of age. The responses of dogs were scored on a 7-point scale according to either responsiveness to human assessor or to environmental stimuli, on stimuli comprising following when called; retrieve; gentle restraint; noise; stroking; a moving toy squirrel; encouragement to go through a tunnel; and encouragement to go over a ramp. Five of these stimuli showed some association with success in guide dog training, and three of these stimuli could be usefully combined in a logistic regression model of success in training. There is potential for this test to be used to predict suitability for guiding work but adjustments to the scoring protocol are recommended.
The overall goal of this work was to measure the efficacy of fMRI for predicting whether a dog would be a successful service dog. The training and imaging were performed in 49 dogs entering service training at 17–21 months of age. 33 dogs completed service training and were matched with a person, while 10 were released for behavioral reasons (4 were selected as breeders and 2 were released for medical reasons.) After 2 months of training, fMRI responses were measured while each dog observed hand signals indicating either reward or no reward and given by both a familiar handler and a stranger. Using anatomically defined ROIs in the caudate, amygdala, and visual cortex, we developed a classifier based on the dogs’ subsequent training outcomes. The classifier had a positive predictive value of 94% and a negative predictive value of 67%. The area under the ROC curve was 0.91 (0.80 with 4-fold cross-validation, P = 0.01), indicating a significant predictive capability. The magnitude of response in the caudate was positively correlated with a successful outcome, while the response in the amygdala depended on the interaction with the visual cortex during the stranger condition and was negatively correlated with outcome (higher being associated with failure). These results suggest that, as indexed by caudate activity, successful service dogs generalize associations to hand signals regardless who gives them but without excessive arousal as measured in the amygdala.
A continuing debate in studies of social development in both humans and other animals is the extent to which early life experiences affect adult behavior. Also unclear are the relative contributions of cognitive skills (“intelligence”) and temperament for successful outcomes. Guide dogs are particularly suited to research on these questions. To succeed as a guide dog, individuals must accomplish complex navigation and decision making without succumbing to distractions and unforeseen obstacles. Faced with these rigorous demands, only ∼70% of dogs that enter training ultimately achieve success. What predicts success as a guide dog? To address these questions, we followed 98 puppies from birth to adulthood. We found that high levels of overall maternal behavior were linked with a higher likelihood of program failure. Furthermore, mothers whose nursing style required greater effort by puppies were more likely to produce successful offspring, whereas mothers whose nursing style required less effort were more likely to produce offspring that failed. In young adults, an inability to solve a multistep task quickly, compounded with high levels of perseveration during the task, was associated with failure. Young adults that were released from the program also appeared more anxious, as indicated by a short latency to vocalize when faced with a novel object task. Our results suggest that both maternal nursing behavior and individual traits of cognition and temperament are associated with guide dog success.
Dogs perform a variety of integral roles in our society, engaging in work ranging from assistance (e.g., service dogs, guide dogs) and therapy to detection (e.g., search-and-rescue dogs, explosive detection dogs) and protection (e.g., military and law enforcement dogs). However, success in these roles, which requires dogs to meet challenging behavioral criteria and to undergo extensive training, is far from guaranteed. Therefore, enhancing the selection process is critical for the effectiveness and efficiency of working dog programs and has the potential to optimize how resources are invested in these programs, increase the number of available working dogs, and improve working dog welfare. In this paper, we review two main approaches for achieving this goal: (1) developing selection tests and criteria that can efficiently and effectively identify ideal candidates from the overall pool of candidate dogs, and (2) developing approaches to enhance performance, both at the individual and population level, via improvements in rearing, training, and breeding. We summarize key findings from the empirical literature regarding best practices for assessing, selecting, and improving working dogs, and conclude with future steps and recommendations for working dog organizations, breeders, trainers, and researchers.
A continuing debate in studies of social development in both humans and other animals is the extent to which early life experiences affect adult behavior. Also unclear are the relative contributions of cognitive skills (“intelligence”) and temperament for successful outcomes. Guide dogs are particularly suited to research on these questions. To succeed as a guide dog, individuals must accomplish complex navigation and decision making without succumbing to distractions and unforeseen obstacles. Faced with these rigorous demands, only ∼70% of dogs that enter training ultimately achieve success. What predicts success as a guide dog? To address these questions, we followed 98 puppies from birth to adulthood. We found that high levels of overall maternal behavior were linked with a higher likelihood of program failure. Furthermore, mothers whose nursing style required greater effort by puppies were more likely to produce successful offspring, whereas mothers whose nursing style required less effort were more likely to produce offspring that failed. In young adults, an inability to solve a multistep task quickly, compounded with high levels of perseveration during the task, was associated with failure. Young adults that were released from the program also appeared more anxious, as indicated by a short latency to vocalize when faced with a novel object task. Our results suggest that both maternal nursing behavior and individual traits of cognition and temperament are associated with guide dog success.
As part of a collaborative project involving five guide and service dog organizations in the USA (Canine Companions for Independence, Guide Dogs for the Blind, Guiding Eyes for the Blind, Leader Dogs for the Blind and The Seeing Eye), volunteer puppy raisers provided information about the behavior of the guide and service dogs in their care via a questionnaire (the Canine Behavioral Assessment and Research Questionnaire, or C-BARQ©; www.cbarq.org). The surveys were completed online when the puppies were 6 months old and again at 12 months of age. Dogs were tracked through training and those that successfully completed training and were matched with a blind/disabled handler or were selected as breeders were classified as successful while dogs rejected from the program due to behavioral issues were classified as released (dogs rejected for medical reasons were excluded from analysis). A total of 11,997 C-BARQ evaluations for 7696 dogs were analyzed. Generalized linear modeling for each of the five schools revealed that dogs that successfully completed training scored more favorably on 27 out of 36 C-BARQ traits at both 6 and 12 months of age compared to those that were released from the programs. The most predictive trait at both age levels was pulls excessively hard on leash, for which each unit increase in score was associated with a 1.4 increase in the odds of being released from the program. The ability of the C-BARQ to discriminate between dogs that were later successful or released differed across organizations (P = 0.001 and P < 0.0001 for 6- and 12-month surveys, respectively), most likely due to differences in the procedures used when making decisions about whether or not to release dogs. These findings provide convincing evidence that the C-BARQ is able to discriminate between dogs that are behaviorally suited for guide or service work and those that are not and may provide trainers with useful information about potential training or breeding candidates as early as 6 months of age.
Als Teil eines kollaborativen Projekts mit fünf Blindenhund- und Servicehund-Organisationen in den USA (Canine Companions for Independence, Guide Dogs for the Blind, Guiding Eyes for the Blind, Leader Dogs for the Blind and The Seeing Eye) beantworteten freiwillige Hunde-Erzieher den C-BARQ-Fragebogen über das Verhalten von Blinden- und Servicehunden aus ihrer Obhut. Diese wurden ausgefüllt, als die Hunde sechs Monate und zwölf Monate alt waren. Assistenzhunde, die die Ausbildung abgeschlossen haben und einem Menschen mit Behinderung übergeben wurden oder zur Züchtung ausgewählt wurden, wurden als erfolgreich eingeordnet, während Hunde, die aufgrund von Verhaltensproblemen abgelehnt wurden, als entlassen klassifiziert wurden. Tiere, die aus medizinischen Gründen abgelehnt wurden, wurden in der Studie nicht beachtet. Insgesamt wurden 11997 Evaluationen mit Angaben über 7696 Hunden analysiert. Es ergab sich, dass Hunde, die eine Ausbildung komplett absolviert haben, im Alter von sechs und zwölf Monaten in 27 von 36 Untersuchungsmerkmalen besser abschnitten als Hunde, die aus dem Programm entlassen wurden. Die Fähigkeit, mit dem C-BARQ-Test zwischen später erfolgreichen und später entlassenen Hunden zu unterscheiden, wurde stark von der jeweiligen Organisation beeinflusst, da jede Organisation andere Bewertungskriterien angesetzt hat. Die Ergebnisse zeigen, dass man mit dem C-BARQ-Test zwischen Hunden, deren Verhalten für die Arbeit als Blinden- oder Servicehund geeignet ist, und Hunden, deren Verhalten nicht für die Arbeit als Blinden- oder Servicehund geeignet ist, unterscheiden kann. Schon im Alter von sechs Monaten können mögliche Übungen vorgeschlagen oder Kandidaten für die Züchtung erkannt werden.
Abstract not available.
Assistance dog puppies live with their raisers for up to 16 months before entering advanced training and, hopefully, becoming qualified to help people with a disability. Almost half of the puppies fail to meet the behavioural standards required for assistance dogs, and some puppy raisers produce more behaviourally favourable puppies than others. It is unclear what factors influence puppy-raising practice quality. To understand this, we interviewed 17 participants, including experienced puppy raisers (n = 8), provider organisation staff (n = 4), and those who have served both as puppy raisers and staff (n = 5). Results of a thematic analysis suggest three groups of influencing factors, namely intrapersonal factors, social support, and puppy characteristics. Intrapersonal factors such as expectations, competency, perseverance and passion were reported to influence puppy raisers’ experiences, puppy-raising quality, and continuity of service. Contextual factors such as availability of social support (informational and emotional supports) and less-demanding puppies both led to positive puppy-raising experiences, while the former also contributed to puppy raisers’ perceptions of competency. Future research should quantitatively examine the interrelationships of these factors concerning puppies’ behavioural development. Meanwhile, organisations could consider these factors when developing their recruitment and puppy-raiser support programs.
Problem behaviors are the most common reason to reject young dogs from entering advanced training and obtaining certification for work as an assistance dog. Therefore, working toward preventing undesirable behaviors should be prioritized to reduce failure rates. The development of problem behaviors in puppies, such as those associated with fearfulness and anxiety, results from the interplay between their genetic predisposition, puppyhood experiences, and other factors in their raising environment. This article uses an adapted general systems model as a framework to review relevant literature, following its three-stage structure, that is, input, throughput, and output. To produce desirable behavioral traits (output), much effort has been devoted to optimizing puppy breeding and selection (input) and developing training and socializing protocols (throughput). However, findings are mixed and the effects generally small. In this article, we suggest that, although it is critical that the industry enroll suitable puppies (input) and adopt evidence-based program designs (organizational levels of throughput), it is the puppy raisers that play a central role in program implementation (individual level of throughput). Puppy raisers’ individual differences will likely influence their adherence to programs developed by assistance dog provider organizations. Specifically, puppy raisers with prior experience will likely be more competent at puppy handling and therefore raise behaviorally favorable puppies. When lacking experience and competency in dog handling skills, novice puppy raisers may rely on methods associated with their existing parenting and attachment styles when addressing puppies’ undesirable behaviors. Future research should therefore investigate these human factors, so as to inform puppy training and behavioral management protocols to ensure they are effective in spite of puppy raiser differences.
Puppy raising (PR) programs recruit volunteer community members (raisers) to raise assistance dog (ADassistance dog) candidates from puppyhood until the dogs are ready for advanced training. Once qualified, ADs assist human handlers with a disability to live more independently. Unfortunately, about 50% of all puppies do not meet the behavioural standards required for further training after completing a PR program. This increases costs and lengthens the time taken for a handler to obtain an AD. Research has identified several factors that influence raisers’ experiences. It has also shown that raisers’ socialisation and training practices affect perceived puppy behaviour. Drawing on the argument that puppy raiser practices are central to improving overall puppy raising program outcomes, this paper interprets recent findings within the framework provided by the behaviour change wheel—an established behaviour change framework—to suggest a coordinated approach to supporting puppy raisers. The recommendations will allow future research to employ more objective measures and more rigorous experimental designs as the field attempts to corroborate existing findings and develop evidence-based models of practice.
Abstract goes here.
Service dogs, also known as assistance dogs, are seen increasingly in public places, including healthcare settings. Whereas an earlier article reviewed literature relevant to the human‐animal bond in general, this, article recounts my personal and professional experiences as a volunteer for Canine Companions for Independence (CCI). Rehabilitation professionals are advocates for their clients, and this article provides important information about the issues, benefits, and challenges in obtaining, training, and living with a service dog. For additional information, sources available through the Internet and a bibliography are provided.
This is the first of three articles on the selection and breeding of dogs for service work. The current article addresses morphological and health considerations; the remaining articles will focus on behavior and temperament characteristics and research in the field of service dog training.
The purpose of this study was to attempt to find related variables of the canine genome with behavioural traits of dogs maintained and tested in a guide dog facility which provided a relatively uniform environment. The study involved 81 Labrador Retrievers that were being trained as guide dogs. Each dog was taken on walk‐out sessions in which the trainer weekly recorded observations that were related to behavioural traits. The records were subjected to key‐word analysis of 14 behaviour‐related words. A factor analysis on the appearance rate of the 14 key words or phrases resulted in the extraction of six factors that accounted for 67.4% of the variance. Factor 1, referred to as aggressiveness, was significantly related to the success or failure of the dog in qualifying as a guide dog, and was also related to the variable of litter identification. Factor 2, referred to as distraction, was related to the variable of trainer. Factor 3, activity level, was related to the variable of sex, and was significantly related to the polymorphisms of c.471T>C in the solute carrier family 1 (neuronal/epithelial high affinity glutamate transporter) member 2 gene and c.216G>A in the catechol‐O‐methyltransferase gene. The involvement of polymorphisms c.471T>C and c.216G>A in behavioural patterns related to activity level is similar to comparable genetic studies in other mammalian species. These results contribute to a greater understanding of the role of these genes in behaviour.
The aim of this study was to determine whether objective measures of laterality could be used to identify dogs with a high probability of successfully completing a Guide Dog Training Programme. Three categories of laterality (motor, sensory, and structural), were assessed in 114 dogs entering guide dog training. Significant predictors of success were identified: the direction of laterality (P = 0.028), paw preference category in the ‘Kong’ test ( = 0.050). This is the first study to report a structural marker of canine behaviour. All three categories of laterality may be used to predict the suitability of dogs for guiding work, and by identifying predictors of success, resources can be more efficiently utilised on dogs with greater potential.P = 0.043), hindpaw clearance height (P = 0.002), laterality indices for a number of measures in the Sensory Jump test, and chest hair whorl direction (P = 0.050). This is the first study to report a structural marker of canine behaviour. All three categories of laterality may be used to predict the suitability of dogs for guiding work, and by identifying predictors of success, resources can be more efficiently utilised on dogs with greater potential.
A range of mobility aids are available to assist people living with vision impairment, and of these, guide dog ownership offers them several unique benefits. However, training a dog to be a successful guide dog comes at a high cost (approximately AU$30,000). Therefore, the aim of this study was to determine whether temperament testing and kennel behavior measures could be used by Guide Dog Organizations for the early identification of dogs suitable for guiding work and thus to reduce production costs. Temperament tests (Passive and Noise, Sudden Appearance, and Dog Distraction Tests) and kennel behavior assessments (Activity Level, Salivary Immunoglobulin A Concentration, and Kennel Surveillance) were assessed in potential guide dogs (n = 25-113) at the Guide Dogs NSW/ACT Training Centre, Glossodia, New South Wales, Australia. Several significant predictors of guide dog success were identified. The presence of panting (P = 0.029) and licking (P = 0.005) when contrasted with baseline observations in the Dog Distraction Test, significantly reduced the probability of guide dog success. Success was also reduced with the latency for a dog to sit in the third Noise Test (P = 0.028), and when the time spent resting was reduced during the evening period (P = 0.018) in the Kennel Surveillance assessment. This study reports that 4 specific behavioral responses, which may reflect anxiety and restlessness, predict low suitability of dogs for guiding work. Through the identification of early predictors of guide dog success, resources can be more appropriately focused on dogs with a higher probability of success, whereas unsuitable dogs can be rehomed.
The article introduces the Purpose Dogs Project, launched in 2017 to raise the success rates of assistance and working dogs through a scientifically guided breeding program. Central to the project is the dual focus on physical health and behavioral stability, ensuring that both breeding animals and their offspring are well-prepared for demanding tasks. By integrating modern genetic research, advanced health screenings, and the expertise of multiple veterinary disciplines, the program seeks to optimize the qualities most critical for guiding and service work. A key theme is the interplay between nature and nurture, with the recognition that genetic predispositions and environmental influences together shape reliable and resilient dogs. The breeding approach is not static but continually refined as new scientific insights and field experiences emerge. Ultimately, the project envisions a future in which stronger, healthier, and more dependable dogs are available for assistance roles, setting a benchmark for working dog programs worldwide.
Assistance Dog Training
This study investigates the predictive power of machine learning and deep learning models for forecasting training outcomes in assistance dogs, using behavioral survey data (C-BARQ) collected from volunteer puppy-raisers at two developmental stages: 6 months and 12 months. We used data from two assistance dog training organizations–Canine Companions and The Seeing Eye, Inc.– to assess model performance and generalizability across different training contexts. Six models, including traditional machine learning approaches (SVM, Random Forest, Decision Tree, and XGBoost) and deep learning architectures (MLP and CNN), were trained and evaluated on C-BARQ behavioral scores using metrics such as accuracy, F1 Score, precision, and recall. Results indicate that Support Vector Machine (SVM) and XGBoost consistently delivered the highest prediction accuracy, with SVM achieving up to 80 % accuracy in the Canine Companions dataset and 71 % in the Seeing Eye dataset. Although deep learning models like CNN showed moderate accuracy, traditional machine learning models excelled, particularly in structured, tabular data where feature separability is essential. Models trained on 12-month data generally yielded higher predictive accuracy than those trained on 6-month data, highlighting the value of extended behavioral observations. This research underscores the efficacy of traditional machine learning models for early-phase prediction and emphasizes the importance of aligning model selection with dataset characteristics and the stage of behavioral assessment.
This study examined 60 juvenile Labrador (LR) and golden retrievers (GR) and their puppy raisers (PR) to determine the effect of training (n = 20) and socialization (n = 20) compared with a control group (n = 20). These potential guide dogs were randomly allocated into 3 groups of 20 (2 treatment groups and 1 control). Training sessions ran for 6 weeks (only 5 of which were attended by the dogs), and socialization groups ran for 5 weeks (all of which were attended by the dogs). Training involved teaching a bridge (clicker); basic obedience behaviors including sit, drop, loose-leash walking, and recalls; as well as desensitization to handling, discussions about anxiety and environmental enrichment, and play time. Socialization classes covered the same discursive material, but without the training and bridge components. The control group comprised other pups and their PRs within the guide dog puppy-raising program but who were not given access to these additional classes. Like the dogs in both the treatments, these control dogs also underwent the Guide Dog NSW/ACT program but received no direct intervention through the current study.
The authors hypothesized that training and socialization would improve the success rates of dogs in the guide dog program. However, the treatments did not influence the rate of success nor the likelihood of PRs raising a subsequent pup. The interaction between color and sex had some effect on success rates; yellow female LRs had the greatest chance of success, and female GRs had the lowest chance of success. This difference may warrant further investigation in a broader study to assist in decisions as to which breeds and sexes are most successful in guide dog organizations.
Assistance dogs can greatly improve the lives of people with disabilities. However, a large proportion of dogs bred and trained for this purpose are deemed unable to successfully fulfill the behavioral demands of this role. Often, this determination is not finalized until weeks or even months into training, when the dog is close to 2 years old. Thus, there is an urgent need to develop objective selection protocols that can identify dogs most and least likely to succeed, from early in the training process. We assessed the predictive validity of two candidate measures employed by Canine Companions for Independence (CCI), a national assistance dog organization headquartered in Santa Rosa, CA. For more than a decade, CCI has collected data on their population using the Canine Behavioral Assessment and Research Questionnaire (C-BARQ) and a standardized temperament assessment known internally as the In-For-Training (IFT) test, which is conducted at the beginning of professional training. Data from both measures were divided into independent training and test datasets, with the training data used for variable selection and cross-validation. We developed three predictive models in which we predicted success or release from the training program using C-BARQ scores (N = 3,569), IFT scores (N = 5,967), and a combination of scores from both instruments (N = 2,990). All three final models performed significantly better than the null expectation when applied to the test data, with overall accuracies ranging from 64 to 68%. Model predictions were most accurate for dogs predicted to have the lowest probability of success (ranging from 85 to 92% accurate for dogs in the lowest 10% of predicted probabilities), and moderately accurate for identifying the dogs most likely to succeed (ranging from 62 to 72% for dogs in the top 10% of predicted probabilities). Combining C-BARQ and IFT predictors into a single model did not improve overall accuracy, although it did improve accuracy for dogs in the lowest 20% of predicted probabilities. Our results suggest that both types of assessments have the potential to be used as powerful screening tools, thereby allowing more efficient allocation of resources in assistance dog selection and training.
Trained service dogs assist and also add pride, self-reliance, and personal satisfaction to an individual’s daily life. However, well-bred, trained dogs are very expensive. To explore decreasing the cost of a service dog by increasing the number of dogs successfully completing training, the authors analyzed tasks that service dogs are expected to perform, measuring some of the inherent physical stresses the dogs encounter and considering training techniques to better prepare the dogs for more successful completion of tasks. Observing working dogs, the authors found that undue stress was placed on many of the dogs while performing tasks; that motivational gestures for performance were not fully extended; and that, many times, handlers did not instruct the dogs properly. The working dogs observed often were required to perform tasks that put them at risk of injury and performance failure. Important future considerations for training and handling working dogs will include proper training of handlers and a better understanding of the complexities of the instinctive and physical capabilities and limitation of dogs.
Objective: Describe the experiences of students in an undergraduate Assistance Dog Training Program (ADTP) academic minor. Participants: Students enrolled ADTP at a large, public research university. Methods: Qualitative and quantitative survey data and historical program evaluation data were analyzed to describe student experiences. Furthermore, the PERMA (positive emotion, engagement, relationships, meaning, and accomplishments) theory of well-being was used as a theoretical lens to understand participant well-being. Results: ADTP provided opportunities for meaningful service learning, working with animals, developing career interests, fulfilling personal interests, and meeting degree requirements. ADTP participation positively influenced the undergraduate experience by advancing personal and academic growth and life skill development. Finally, the ADTP positively influenced student well-being. Conclusions: Lessons learned to strengthen the ADTP were identified and are discussed. The ADTP can be a model for replication on other campuses to meet the need for more assistance dogs and potentially to support student and community well-being.
This Comment is a supplemental feature of the Journal of Visual Impairment & Blindness October-November 2011 Special Issue on Orientation and Mobility and Professional Preparation: Celebrating 50 Years. This commentary is based on presentations the authors gave at the 2011 Josephine L. Taylor Leadership Institute in Seattle, Washington, and the 2010 North Central Orientation and Mobility Association (NCOMA) conference in Kalamazoo, Michigan.
Williams-Beuren Syndrome (WBS) is a neurodevelopmental disorder in humans caused by a hemizygous deletion of 28–30 genes and characterized by hypersociability and cognitive deficits. In canines, the homologous chromosomal region shows a strong signature of selection in domestic dogs relative to gray wolves, and four structural variants derived from transposons have been associated with social behavior. To explore these genetic associations in more phenotypic detail—as well as their role in training success—we genotyped 1,001 assistance dogs from Canine Companions for Independence®, including both successful graduates and those released from the training program for behavioral problems. We collected phenotypes on each dog using puppy-raiser questionnaires, trainer questionnaires, and both cognitive and behavioral tests. Using Bayesian mixed models, we found strong associations between genotypes and certain behavioral measures, including separation-related problems, aggression when challenged or corrected, and reactivity to other dogs. Furthermore, we found moderate differences in the genotypes of dogs who graduated versus those who did not; insertions in GTF2I showed the strongest association (β = 0.23, CI95% = -0.04, 0.49), translating to an odds-ratio of 1.25 for one insertion. Our results provide insight into the role of each of these loci in canine sociability and may inform breeding and training practices for working dog organizations. Furthermore, the observed importance of GTF2I supports the emerging consensus that GTF2I genotypes, dosage, and expression are particularly important for the social behavior phenotypes seen in WBS.
For the dog to become a safe and fluent guide for a vision impaired person it will be necessary for it to employ the cognitive processes of selective attention, pattern recognition, categorisation, discrimination, prediction and the mental representation of knowledge and its translation into action. Above all the guide dog needs to be a confident decision maker and problem solver, capable of operating with purposeful intent within a set of rules.
If the dog is to guide its vision impaired owner safely in town or city, stopping at kerbs, avoiding pedestrians and street furniture, manoeuvring around ladders and helping its owner cross roads safely, it will need to be much more than a well conditioned and unthinking robot!
This e-pub will be of value to dog owners and professional trainers, education and training staff of guide dog schools, students of animal and human cognition, veterinary staff, and anyone who has a curiosity about how the guide dog does its job.
The author discusses three important factors that need to be considered by Orientation & Mobility (O&M) instructors when working with clients that are guide dog users. These include: that the work of a guide dog can be infl uenced by the presence of the O&M instructor during training; the signifi cance of straight line travel; and the importance of using such O&M techniques as guiding, directional cues and landmarks.
Evidence supporting seizure-related behaviors in dogs is emerging. The methods of seizure response dog (SRD) training programs are unstudied. A standardized survey was retrospectively applied to graduates of a large SRD program. Subjective changes in quality of life (QOL) parameters were explored. Data were captured on animal characteristics, training methods, response and alerting behaviors, effects on seizure frequency, and accuracy of epilepsy diagnosis. Twenty-two patients (88%) participated (median age = 34, range = 12–66, 73% female). Most had childhood-onset epilepsy (87%) that was refractory with averages of 36 seizures/month and 4.8 medications failed. All had neurologist-confirmed epilepsy, most being symptomatic partial (64%). SRD behaviors were reliable, including emergency response system activation in 27%. All reported SRD-related QOL improvements (major 82%, moderate 18%) across multiple parameters. Spontaneous alerting behavior developed in 59%. That SRD programs may select genuine epilepsy patients, instill valuable assistance skills, and generate meaningful QOL improvements supports further seizure dog research.
Es entstehen immer mehr Beweise dafür, dass Hunde auf Anfälle von Menschen reagieren. Die Methoden der Ausbildung von Anfalls-Hilfshunden sind unerforscht. Eine standardisierte Umfrage wurde retrospektiv auf Absolventen eines großen Ausbildungsprogramm von Anfalls-Hilfshunden eingesetzt. Subjektive Veränderungen der Parameter, die die Lebensqualität betreffen, wurden untersucht. Es wurden Daten zu Eigenschaften der Tiere, Ausbildungsmethoden, Reaktions- und Warnverhalten, Auswirkungen auf die Häufigkeit der Anfälle und Genauigkeit der Epilepsie-Diagnose gesammelt. 22 Patienten zwischen 12 und 66 Jahren nahmen teil (Durchschnittsalter 34, 73% weiblich). Die meisten hatten seit dem Kindesalter Epilepsie (87%), die mit durchschnittlich 36 Anfällen pro Monat und 4,8 gescheiterten medikamentösen Behandlungen refraktär war. Alle Epilepsie-Erkrankungen waren vom Neurologen bestätigt, die meisten waren symptomatisch partiell (64%). Das Verhalten von Anfalls-Hilfshunden war zuverlässig, zudem wurde in 27% der Fälle das Notfalleinsatzsystem aktiviert. Alle berichteten über Verbesserungen vieler Parameter bezüglich der Lebensqualität durch den Anfalls-Hilfshund (starke Verbesserung 82%, moderate Verbesserung 18%). Spontanes Warnverhalten entwickelte sich in 59% der Fälle. Dass Ausbildungsprogramme für Anfalls-Hilfshunde epilepsiekranken Menschen wertvolle Unterstützung und eine bedeutungsvolle Verbesserung der Lebensqualität bieten können, unterstützt die weitere Forschung über Anfallshunde.
We analyzed dyadic interactions between 12 neutered dogs (6 females and 6 males) and 44 humans (20 women, 14 men, and 10 girls) who were unfamiliar with each other. We also examined the effect of sex differences in dogs and humans as well as age differences in humans on human-dog interactions in a guide-dog turning program. Female dogs more actively regulated their distance from humans than male dogs. Dogs made contact with women more frequently than with men, and men nude contact with dogs more frequently than women. Girls initiated interactions with dogs more frequently than women; girls formed reciprocal interactions with dogs less frequently than women.
A young blind adult recounts his experiences in using a dog guide, describing psychological adjustment, trials and joys of being a student at a dog guide training center, bonding with the new dog, and adjusting to home life with a dog guide. Suggestions are offered for the improvement of orientation and mobility training. (JDD)
The Tellington TTouch method is used to reduce stress and relax animals so they can learn more effectively. It aims to increase an animal’s body awareness and balance by using a combination of techniques that include specific touches, body wraps and leading (movement) exercises. This article discusses the method and its potential role in guide dog training.
Excessive stress impairs learning. The Tellington TTouch method (TTouch) is used to reduce stress and relax animals so they can learn more effectively. It aims at increasing an animal’s body awareness and balance by using a combination of techniques that include specific touches, body wraps, and leading (movement) exercises. This article introduces the TTouch method, its role in sensory enhanced learning, and provides a review of TTouch in the scientific literature and the way this applies to stress in guide dogs. The article concludes with a discussion of the benefits of integrating TTouch in guide dog training.
Matching a person who is blind or visually impaired with a guide dog is a process of finding the most suitable guide dog available for that individual. Not all guide dog partnerships are successful, and the consequences of an unsuccessful partnership may result in reduced mobility and quality of life for the handler (owner), and are costly in time and resources for guide dog training establishments. This study examined 50 peoples’ partnerships with one or more dogs (118 pairings) to ascertain the outcome of the relationship. Forty-three of the 118 dogs were returned to the guide dog training establishment before reaching retirement age, with the majority (n = 40) being categorized as having dog-related issues. Most (n = 26) of these dogs’ issues were classified as being behavioral in character, including work-related and non-work-related behavior, and 14 were due to physical causes (mainly poor health). Three dogs were returned due to matters relating to the handlers’ behavior. More second dogs were returned than the handlers’ first or third dogs, and dogs that had been previously used as a guide could be rematched successfully. Defining matching success is not clear-cut. Not all dogs that were returned were considered by their handlers to have been mismatched, and not all dogs retained until retirement were thought to have been good matches, suggesting that some handlers were retaining what they considered to be a poorly matched dog. Almost all the handlers who regarded a dog as being mismatched conceded that some aspects of the match were good. For example, a dog deemed mismatched for poor working behavior may have shown good home and/or other social behaviors. The same principle was true for successful matches, where few handlers claimed to have had a perfect dog. It is hoped that these results may help the guide dog industry identify important aspects of the matching process, and/or be used to identify areas where a matching problem exists.
Guide Dogs for the Blind, Inc. (GDB) provides enhanced mobility to qualified individuals through partnership with dogs whose unique skills are developed and nurtured by dedicated volunteers and a professional staff. In 2005, GDB expanded its vision to be a more inclusive and diverse employer. A trial commenced to determine the feasibility of the current instructor position being filled by a blind person. To complete this trial a qualified individual was hired to undergo task analysis of all job functions in conjunction with senior members of the Training Department. Additionally, a consumer advisory committee was consulted to ensure a fair and impartial evaluation. Results of the trial are presented in this article.
Abstract
Canine behaviour is commonly assessed using test batteries comprising a test protocol and ethogram scoring system. These are particularly valuable for assistance dog organisations as a tool for evaluating trainee dogs’ proficiency in fundamental skills. The goal of this study was to design and validate a new test battery to assess the suitability of trainee dogs for assistance work at different stages of the training programme. The main objective was to develop a machine-learning tool capable of predicting working outcomes. Accordingly, the novel Assistance Dog Test Battery (ADTB) was developed. Trainee assistance dogs participating in this research performed the test at 3 weeks and 10 weeks after starting formal training. The results from the univariate logistic regression analysis were used to select the variables for the reduced feature sets that were used for modelling. The machine learning models were built using the data collected at 3 and 10 weeks separately and predicted working outcomes with an area under the ROC curve of 0.74 and 0.84, respectively. This research demonstrated the relationship between the novel ADTB ethogram measures and working outcomes in assistance dogs. The machine learning model created using the data collected at 3 weeks achieved comparable performance to the state-of-the-art, while the model built using the data collected at 10 weeks substantially outperformed it. These preliminary results suggest that the ADTB is a reliable tool for the prediction of working outcomes in trainee assistance dogs. Hence, assistance dog organisations can reduce the cost of training by using model predictions as a guide for deciding which dogs to withdraw from training. The data collected and the code developed in this research are publicly available on Mendeley Data (https://doi.org/10.17632/5mzfpt455r.1) and GitHub, respectively (https://github.com/mmarcato/dog_ethogram/).
Purpose: This Australian study piloted a new measure of Orientation and Mobility to better understand the functional mobility of guide dog handlers with low vision or blindness. It is expected that this measure can be used to better match guide dogs to their handlers.
Materials and methods: The new Orientation and Mobility Outcomes tool scores a client in Stable/Familiar and Dynamic/Unfamiliar conditions, also considering Travel-Related Wellbeing. Semi-structured interviews were conducted with 51 guide dog handlers, during which travel skills were co-rated with an interviewer.
Results: A cluster analysis of the Orientation and Mobility Outcomes data identified four mobility styles: intrepid explorers, social navigators, independent roamers and homebodies. The differences between these clusters had more to do with mental mapping skills than level of vision, and different guide dog characteristics were needed to support the travel styles identified for each cluster.
Conclusions: The results confirm the importance of the Orientation and Mobility Outcomes tool as a sensitive, person-centred measure of the impact of Orientation and Mobility and guide dog training. In particular, the four mobility clusters provide a new perspective on matching guide dogs with clients, also suggesting the need for a more personalised look at the guide dog training process.
Implications for Rehabilitation
Orientation and Mobility Outcomes data seem precise enough to support and inform the process of matching guide dogs to handlers.
Uniform results cannot be expected from guide dog mobility in handlers – age, stage of life, health and spatial cognition impact the competence and travel style of guide dog handlers, whereas vision is less important.
Sharing the work of visual interpretation and decision making with a guide dog makes independent travel more possible.
Valuable dog characteristics that are specific to handler requirements might be bred or trained from puppy raising onwards, creating a more diverse pool of dogs to draw upon.
Periodic monitoring of the training of prospective guide dogs for the blind was evaluated to determine if the monitoring is useful in gauging the potential suitability of guide dogs. We selected 8 dogs as test dogs on the basis of their medical check and pretraining evaluation. Beginning with day 1 of training, we monitored their progress every 2 weeks for 12 weeks. The evaluation was designed to assess task performance, stress, excitement, and concentration for the task. We set the test course in a residential district, but in an area that was not used for daily training. In some variables, such as tail position, duration of distraction, and effect of the training break, there were some differences between a dog that successfully completed guide training and dogs that did not.
The number of stress reactions was significantly different between successful and unsuccessful dogs. Only 1 dog out of the 8 observed became a guide dog; however, the present study suggests that it is possible to detect some traits in the early stages of training that determine whether or not a dog successfully becomes a guide dog.
The graduate-level mobility instructor has begun to play a more active role in the dog guide field in recent years. This article outlines the duties and responsibilities of a peripatologist who was a member of the training staff at Guiding Eyes for the Blind, Inc., in Yorktown Heights, New York. Differences between traveling with a cane and with a dog guide, involvement of mobility instructors in the dog guide field and instruction of students with secondary disabilities such as diabetes, hearing loss and mental retardation are discussed.
This subject will be covered in three sections, first, a brief history of how the idea of using trained dogs to help the blind was conceived, then the present-day methods of training guide dogs, and, finally, how the blind person is trained with their guide dog to work together as a team.
This article scrutinises issues around disability and dependent (interdependent) agency, extending these to non-human animals and service dogs, with a sustained reference to the training of guide dogs. It does this through a detailed engagement with the training methodology and philosophy of The Seeing Eye guide dog school in the 1930s, exploring the physical, bodily and instrumental means through which the guide dog partnership, and the identity of the instructor, the guide dog and the guide dog owner, jointly came into being. The novelty of the article lies in how it reconsiders what interdependence meant and means from the perspectives drawing from historical and sociological literature on dog training. In doing so it opens up new ways of thinking about service animals that recognise their historical contingency and the complex processes at work in the creation and development of interdependent agency.
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No Abstract available.
Abstract goes here.
Aims. Domestic dogs are trained to a wide variety of roles including an increasing number of medical assistance tasks. Glycaemia alert dogs are reported to greatly improve the quality of life of owners living with Type 1 diabetes. Research into their value is currently sparse, on small numbers of dogs and provides conflicting results. In this study we assess the reliability of a large number of trained glycaemic alert dogs at responding to hypo- and hyper-glycaemic (referred to as out-of-range, OOR) episodes, and explore factors associated with variations in their performance.
Methods. Routine owner records were used to assess the sensitivity and specificity of each of 27 dogs, trained by a single UK charity during almost 4000 out-of-range episodes. Sensitivity and positive predictive values are compared to demographic factors and instructors’ ratings of the dog, owner and partnership.
Results. Dogs varied in their performance, with median sensitivity to out-of-range episodes at 70% (25th percentile = 50, 75th percentile = 95). To hypoglycaemic episodes the median sensitivity was 83% (66–94%) while to hyperglyaemic episodes it was 67% (17–91%). The median positive predictive value (PPV) was 81% (68–94%), i.e. on average 81% of alerts occurred when glucose levels were out of target range. For four dogs, PPV was 100%. Individual characteristics of the dog, the partnership and the household were significantly associated with performance (e.g., whether the dog was previously a pet, when it was trained, whether its partner was an adult or child).
Conclusions. The large sample shows that the individual performance of dogs is variable, but overall their sensitivity and specificity to OOR episodes are better than previous studies suggest. Results show that optimal performance of glycaemic alert dogs depends not only on good initial and ongoing training, but also careful selection of dogs for the conditions in which they will be working.
The present study aimed at evaluating possible behavioural differences between guide dogs living in a kennel and interacting with a trainer and those living in a house and interacting with a blind person and their family, when they are faced with an unsolvable task. Fifty-two Labrador retrievers were tested: 13 Trained Guide dogs at the end of their training programme and 11 Working Guide dogs that had been living with their blind owner for at least 1 year. Two control groups of Labrador retrievers were also tested: 14 Young Untrained dogs of the same age as the Trained Guide and 14 Old Untrained dogs of the same age as the Working Guide dogs. Results showed that the Trained Guide dogs gazed towards the owner or the stranger for less time and with a higher latency and spent more time interacting with the experimental apparatus than the other three groups, which all behaved similarly. None of the groups tested showed preferences in gazing towards the stranger or the owner. Together, the results suggest that at the end of their training programme, guide dogs are less prone to engage in human-directed gazing behaviour and more likely to act independently when facing an unsolvable task. Conversely, guide dogs that have been living with a blind person (and their family) for 1 year behave like pet dogs. These findings indicate that guide dogs’ gazing towards humans is favoured by living in close proximity with people and by interacting with them.
This dissertation looked at the impact of receiving and training a service dog on combat veterans with PTSD using Robert Stake’s collective case study model. Interviews were conducted with fifteen combat veterans diagnosed with PTSD participating in a 14 week program for receiving and training their own service dog. The goal of the study was to explore the veterans’ experience of the training program, as well as determine any effect on their PTSD symptoms. The data obtained through this research study may enhance the field of psychology by providing an alternative treatment modality for PTSD which may be more acceptable to veterans than other, more traditional treatments. This study concluded the training and receipt of a service dog demonstrated effective results for diminishing PTSD symptoms, and may be an alternative solution for those who may not be comfortable seeking help in a more traditional manner. This form of treatment may also serve as a gateway to enable veterans to participate more successfully in other evidence-based treatment modalities as their symptoms of PTSD lessen.
Studies identifying the underlying determinants of adult dog behavior and highlighting successful methods of early intervention are essential to reduce and ultimately prevent problem behaviors developing. The aim of this research was to create and assess the impact of a new nest socialization program. The new program was designed to: 1) provide a highly effective socialization experience, 2) be quick and easy to complete and 3) utilize low cost materials. The program was created by combining existing nest stimulation theories with young puppy developmental stages. As such the introduction and intensity of each socialization stimulus was tailored to mirror puppy physiological and behavioral development from birth to six weeks of age.
The new socialization program was evaluated using six litters raised under standardized conditions. The impact of the program was measured using a practical puppy behavioral assessment at six weeks of age and an eight-month dog handler behavioral questionnaire.Results showed a significant positive effect of the new socialization program on puppy behavioral development, which persisted throughout the first year of life. Puppies that received the program had more favorable scores in a six-week practical assessment (P ≪ 0.01) and an eight-month dog handler questionnaire for separation-related behavior (P ≪ 0.01), distraction (P ≪ 0.01), general anxiety (P = 0.02) and body sensitivity (P = 0.03). This is the first socialization program tailored to the developmental stage of puppies from birth to six weeks of age to demonstrate measurable, long-term effects on individual dog behavioral traits. Results will be of interest to working and assistance dog organizations, animal shelters and pet dog breeders.
In the article I present an ethnographic reflection on the process of guide dogs generation, an animal assistive technology developed to facilitate the mobility of the visually impaired person. Focusing especially on the training phase, I try to understand the trajectory of transformations, the unfolding of events and the changes of movement that make certain dogs able to “graduate” as guides. Following a Maussian perspective, the guiding technique is understood here as the result of a certain relationship between movements and things, encompassing tools, human and canine bodies and their displacements in different environments.
Assistance dogs’ roles have diversified to support people with various disabilities, especially in the U.S. Data presented here are from the U.S. and Canada non-profit facilities (including both accredited and candidate members that fulfilled partial requirements: all here termed “accredited”) of Assistance Dogs International (ADI) and the International Guide Dog Federation (IGDF), and from non-accredited U.S. assistance dog training facilities, on the numbers and types of dogs they placed in 2013 and 2014 with persons who have disabilities. ADI categories of assistance dogs are for guide, hearing, and service (including for assistance with mobility, autism, psychiatric, diabetes, seizure disabilities). Accredited facilities in 28 states and 3 provinces responded; accredited non-responding facilities were in 22 states and 1 province (some in states/provinces with responding accredited facilities). Non-accredited facilities in 16 states responded. U.S./Canada responding accredited facilities (55 of 96: 57%) placed 2,374 dogs; non-accredited U.S. facilities (22 of 133: 16.5%) placed 797 dogs. Accredited facilities placed similar numbers of dogs for guiding (n = 918) or mobility (n = 943), but many more facilities placed mobility service dogs than guide dogs. Autism service dogs were third most for accredited (n = 205 placements) and U.S. non-accredited (n = 72) facilities. Psychiatric service dogs were fourth most common in accredited placements (n = 119) and accounted for most placements (n = 526) in non-accredited facilities. Other accredited placements were for: hearing (n = 109); diabetic alert (n = 69), and seizure response (n = 11). Responding non-accredited facilities placed 17 hearing dogs, 30 diabetic alert dogs, and 18 seizure response dogs. Non-accredited facilities placed many dogs for psychiatric assistance, often for veterans, but ADI accreditation is required for veterans to have financial reimbursement. Twenty states and several provinces had no responding facilities; 17 of these states had no accredited facilities. In regions lacking facilities, some people with disabilities may find it inconvenient living far from any supportive facility, even if travel costs are provided. Despite accelerated U.S./Canada placements, access to well-trained assistance dogs continues to be limited and inconvenient for many people with disabilities, and the numerous sources of expensive, poorly trained dogs add confusion for potential handlers.
In western countries, such as the United States and the United Kingdom, many people with disabilities benefit from the help their assistance dogs provide. In contrast, assistance dogs have not become widespread in Japan. This study explores the perspectives of Japanese people with disabilities, including the obstacles they have experienced when considering acquiring an assistance dog. A paper-based questionnaire was used to investigate the experiences of people with orthopedic, hearing, or visual disabilities. The results showed that a minority of participants with orthopedic (13.9%), hearing (31.6%), or visual (16.0%) disabilities hoped to live with an assistance dog. Younger people (18-59 years of age) hoped to have one more often than older people (over 60 years of age), which was related to their frequency of going out of the house. Younger people were more active in going outside regularly; older women were the least active. People with orthopedic disabilities were less active than those with other disabilities. Younger people were also more experienced in keeping dogs, and liked playing with them more. Younger women showed the greatest interest in living with an assistance dog, and older women the least interest; targeting information and encouragement to younger women may be most productive for placing dogs. Among people who did not hope to acquire an assistance dog, 6.1-11.6% of them felt sorry for dogs that are required to go through training, and 8.3-16.1% of them answered that they hated dogs. Our results indicated that Japanese are influenced by cultural, historical, and environmental contexts, and are not yet fully familiar with and accepting of the concepts of working dogs that are typical in the western countries. Most of the participants who hoped to live with an assistance dog had not actually applied for one. They gave the following reasons: there were inevitable negative aspects of living with dogs and sources of information, training systems, and policies by the governments and/or assistance dog organizations were cumbersome and inconvenient. The overall strategies to provide assistance dogs to people with disabilities need to be more accessible and accommodate the specific needs of the people who have disabilities.
It has been widely reported that service dogs offer benefits to their human partners, however, it is unclear whether the expanding methods of training and roles of service dogs for their partners with various disabilities also provide similar benefits. This study aimed to investigate the self-reported experience of service dog partners to understand whether three different factors influence the benefits and drawbacks associated with partnering with a service dog: (1) different methods of training service dogs; (2) different severities of human partners’ disabilities; (3) different roles of service dogs. Partners of service dogs were recruited to the web survey through service dog facilities and networking groups. Answers from 19 men and 147 women participants (91.8% living in the U.S.) were analyzed in this study. Participants experienced the expected benefits of service dogs, including increased independence, social relationships, self-esteem, and life satisfaction, and decreased anxiety, stress, and loneliness. However, the perceived benefits, concerns, and burdens differed depending on the partners’ disabilities and the training history of the dogs. When first living with their service dogs, people who had self-trained their service dogs experienced more burdens than those living with professionally trained service dogs. No major reduction in expenses for assistance after acquiring a dog was reported. Personalized team training based on each person’s disabilities and situation is required to optimize the benefits and minimize the burdens and concerns of living with service dogs.
Owner-Training vs. External Training
Aims: Patients with diabetes increasingly have questions about diabetes alert dogs. This study evaluated perceptions about dogs trained professionally or otherwise to detect glucose levels. Methods: A link to a survey about glucose detecting dogs was announced on diabetes websites. Results: 135 persons responded, with 63 answering about their child with diabetes. Most respondents obtained their dog from a professional trainer (n=54) or trained it themselves(n=51). Owners of self and professionally-trained dogs were very positive about dogs’ abilities to alert them to low and high glucose levels, while owners of dogs that learned entirely on their own (n=15) reported lower frequencies of alerts and more missed hypo-glycemic episodes, p<.01. Regardless of how dogs learned, perceptions about managing diabetes were improved during periods of dog ownership relative to times without, p<.001. Self-reported rates of diabetes-related hospitalizations, assistance from others for treating hypoglycemia, and accidents or near accidents while driving reduced during periods of dog ownership compared to periods without dogs, ps<.01. Conclusions: These data suggest potential effectiveness of and high satisfaction with glucose-detecting dogs. Clinicians can use these results to address pros and cons of dog ownership with patients who inquire about them.
Patienten mit Diabetes haben immer häufiger Fragen zu Diabetes-Warnhunden. Diese Studie bewertet die Erkenntnisse über Hunde, die professionell oder anderweitig ausgebildet wurden, um Glukose-Werte zu bestimmen. Auf Diabetes-Internetseiten wurde ein Link zu einer Umfrage über Glukose erkennende Hunde geteilt. 135 Personen nahmen teil, 63 davon hatten ein Kind mit Diabetes. Die meisten Teilnehmer erhielten ihren Hund von einem professionellen Ausbilder (54) oder bildeten ihn selber aus (51). Besitzer von selbst oder professionell ausgebildeten Hunden waren sehr positiv gegenüber der Fähigkeit der Hunde, sie vor hohen oder niedrigen Glukose-Werten zu warnen, während Besitzer von Hunden, die dies ganz allein gelernt haben (15), über eine geringere Häufigkeit von Warnungen und mehr verpasste hypoglykämische Episoden berichteten. Unabhängig von der Art der Ausbildung der Hunde verbesserte sich die Wahrnehmung über die Bewältigung von Diabetes, während Patienten einen Hund besaßen. Im Vergleich zu Perioden ohne Hund reduzierten sich die selbstberichtete Anzahl der durch Diabetes hervorgerufenen Krankenhausaufenthalte, die Unterstützung anderer zur Behandlung von Hypoglykämie und Unfälle oder Beinaheunfälle während des Autofahrens, wenn die Teilnehmer einen Hund hatten. Diese Daten deuten auf eine mögliche Effektivität von und eine hohe Zufriedenheit mit Hunden, die Glukose-Werte erkennen können, hin. Mediziner können diese Ergebnisse nutzen, um Vor- und Nachteile von Diabetes-Warnhunden mit Patienten zu besprechen, die sich danach erkundigen.
It has been widely reported that service dogs offer benefits to their human partners, however, it is unclear whether the expanding methods of training and roles of service dogs for their partners with various disabilities also provide similar benefits. This study aimed to investigate the self-reported experience of service dog partners to understand whether three different factors influence the benefits and drawbacks associated with partnering with a service dog: (1) different methods of training service dogs; (2) different severities of human partners’ disabilities; (3) different roles of service dogs. Partners of service dogs were recruited to the web survey through service dog facilities and networking groups. Answers from 19 men and 147 women participants (91.8% living in the U.S.) were analyzed in this study. Participants experienced the expected benefits of service dogs, including increased independence, social relationships, self-esteem, and life satisfaction, and decreased anxiety, stress, and loneliness. However, the perceived benefits, concerns, and burdens differed depending on the partners’ disabilities and the training history of the dogs. When first living with their service dogs, people who had self-trained their service dogs experienced more burdens than those living with professionally trained service dogs. No major reduction in expenses for assistance after acquiring a dog was reported. Personalized team training based on each person’s disabilities and situation is required to optimize the benefits and minimize the burdens and concerns of living with service dogs.
